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Electronic waste (or e-waste) describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. It is also commonly known as waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) or end-of-life (EOL) electronics.^[1] Used electronics which are destined for refurbishment, reuse, resale, salvage recycling through material recovery, or disposal are also considered e-waste. Informal processing of e-waste in developing countries can lead to adverse human health effects and environmental pollution.^[2] The growing consumption of electronic goods due to the Digital Revolution and innovations in science and technology, such as bitcoin, has led to a global e-waste problem and hazard. The rapid exponential increase of e-waste is due to frequent new model releases and unnecessary purchases of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), short innovation cycles and low recycling rates, and a drop in the average life span of computers.^[3]

Electronic scrap components, such as CPUs, contain potentially harmful materials such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Recycling and disposal of e-waste may involve significant risk to the health of workers and their communities.^[4]

Definition

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Hoarding (first), disassembling (second) and collecting (third) electronic waste in Bengaluru, India

When an electronic product is thrown away after its useful life is over, it produces electronic trash, or e-waste. E-waste is produced in vast quantities as a result of the consumption-driven society and the quick development of technology.^[5]

In the US, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classifies e-waste into ten categories:

1. Large household appliances, including cooling and freezing appliances
2. Small household appliances
3. IT equipment, including monitors
4. Consumer electronics, including televisions
5. Lamps and luminaires
6. Toys
7. Tools
8. Medical devices
9. Monitoring and control instruments
10. Automatic dispensers

These include used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or disposal as well as re-usables (working and repairable electronics) and secondary raw materials (copper, steel, plastic, or similar). The term “waste” is reserved for residue or material which is dumped by the buyer rather than recycled, including residue from reuse and recycling operations, because loads of surplus electronics are frequently commingled (good, recyclable, and non-recyclable). Several public policy advocates apply the term “e-waste” and “e-scrap” broadly to apply to all surplus electronics. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) are considered one of the hardest types to recycle.^[6][7]

Using a different set of categories, the Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development defines e-waste in six categories:

1. Temperature exchange equipment (such as air conditioners, freezers)
2. Screens, monitors (TVs, laptops)
3. Lamps (LED lamps, for example)
4. Large equipment (washing machines, electric stoves)
5. Small equipment (microwaves, electric shavers)
6. Small IT and telecommunication equipment (such as mobile phones, printers)

Products in each category vary in longevity profile, impact, and collection methods, among other differences.^[8] Around 70% of toxic waste in landfills is electronic waste.^[9]

CRTs have a relatively high concentration of lead and phosphors (not to be confused with phosphorus), both of which are necessary for the display. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) includes discarded CRT monitors in its category of “hazardous household waste”^[10] but considers CRTs that have been set aside for testing to be commodities if they are not discarded, speculatively accumulated, or left unprotected from weather and other damage. These CRT devices are often confused between the DLP Rear Projection TV, both of which have a different recycling process due to the materials of which they are composed.

The EU and its member states operate a system via the European Waste Catalogue (EWC) – a European Council Directive, which is interpreted into “member state law”. In the UK, this is in the form of the List of Wastes Directive. However, the list (and EWC) gives a broad definition (EWC Code 16 02 13*) of what is hazardous electronic waste, requiring “waste operators” to employ the Hazardous Waste Regulations (Annex 1A, Annex 1B) for refined definition. Constituent materials in the waste also require assessment via the combination of Annex II and Annex III, again allowing operators to further determine whether waste is hazardous.^[11]

Debate continues over the distinction between “commodity” and “waste” electronics definitions. Some exporters are accused of deliberately leaving difficult-to-recycle, obsolete, or non-repairable equipment mixed in loads of working equipment (though this may also come through ignorance, or to avoid more costly treatment processes). Protectionists may broaden the definition of “waste” electronics in order to protect domestic markets from working secondary equipment.

The high value of the computer recycling subset of electronic waste (working and reusable laptops, desktops, and components like RAM) can help pay the cost of transportation for a larger number of worthless pieces than what can be achieved with display devices, which have less (or negative) scrap value. A 2011 report, “Ghana E-waste Country Assessment”,^[12] found that of 215,000 tons of electronics imported to Ghana, 30% was brand new and 70% was used. Of the used product, the study concluded that 15% was not reused and was scrapped or discarded. This contrasts with published but uncredited claims that 80% of the imports into Ghana were being burned in primitive conditions.

Quantity

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E-waste is considered the “fastest-growing waste stream in the world”^[13] with 62 billion kg generated in 2022 with only 22.3% formally documented as being recycled, ^[14] thus the name ‘tsunami of e-waste’ given by the UN.^[13] Its value is estimated to be $91 billion.

Rapid changes in technology, changes in media (tapes, software, MP3), falling prices, and planned obsolescence have resulted in a fast-growing surplus of electronic waste around the globe. Truly circular technical solutions are very limited, but in most cases, a legal framework, a collection, logistics, and other services need to be implemented before a technical solution can be applied.

Display units (CRT, LCD, LED monitors), processors (CPU, GPU, or APU chips), memory (DRAM or SRAM), and audio components have different useful lives. Processors are most frequently out-dated (by software no longer being optimized) and are more likely to become “e-waste” while display units are most often replaced while working without repair attempts, due to changes in wealthy nation appetites for new display technology. This problem could potentially be solved with modular smartphones (such as the Phonebloks concept). These types of phones are more durable and have the technology to change certain parts of the phone making them more environmentally friendly. Being able to simply replace the part of the phone that is broken will reduce e-waste.^[15] An estimated 50 million tons of e-waste are produced each year.^[16] The USA discards 30 million computers each year and 100 million phones are disposed of in Europe each year. The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that only 15–20% of e-waste is recycled, the rest of these electronics go directly into landfills and incinerators.^[17][18]

In 2006, the United Nations estimated the amount of worldwide electronic waste discarded each year to be 50 million metric tons.^[19] According to a report by UNEP titled, “Recycling – from e-waste to Resources,” the amount of e-waste being produced – including mobile phones and computers – could rise by as much as 500 percent over the next decade in some countries, such as India.^[20] The United States is the world leader in producing electronic waste, tossing away about 3 million tons each year.^[21] China already produces about 10.1 million tons (2020 estimate) domestically, second only to the United States. And, despite having banned e-waste imports, China remains a major e-waste dumping ground for developed countries.^[21]

Society today revolves around technology and by the constant need for the newest and most high-tech products we are contributing to a mass amount of e-waste.^[22] Since the invention of the iPhone, cell phones have become the top source of e-waste products .^{[citation needed]} Electrical waste contains hazardous but also valuable and scarce materials. Up to 60 elements can be found in complex electronics.^[23] Concentration of metals within the electronic waste is generally higher than a typical ore, such as copper, aluminium, iron, gold, silver, and palladium.^[24] As of 2013, Apple has sold over 796 million iDevices (iPod, iPhone, iPad). Cell phone companies make cell phones that are not made to last so that the consumer will purchase new phones. Companies give these products such short lifespans because they know that the consumer will want a new product and will buy it if they make it.^{[25][better source needed]} In the United States, an estimated 70% of heavy metals in landfills comes from discarded electronics.^[26][27]

While there is agreement that the number of discarded electronic devices is increasing, there is considerable disagreement about the relative risk (compared to automobile scrap, for example), and strong disagreement whether curtailing trade in used electronics will improve conditions, or make them worse. According to an article in Motherboard, attempts to restrict the trade have driven reputable companies out of the supply chain, with unintended consequences.^[28]

E-waste data 2016

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In 2016, Asia was the territory that had the most extensive volume of e-waste (18.2 Mt), accompanied by Europe (12.3 Mt), America (11.3 Mt), Africa (2.2 Mt), and Oceania (0.7 Mt). The smallest in terms of total e-waste made, Oceania was the largest generator of e-waste per capita (17.3 kg/inhabitant), with hardly 6% of e-waste cited to be gathered and recycled. Europe is the second broadest generator of e-waste per citizen, with an average of 16.6 kg/inhabitant; however, Europe bears the loftiest assemblage figure (35%). America generates 11.6 kg/inhabitant and solicits only 17% of the e-waste caused in the provinces, which is commensurate with the assortment count in Asia (15%). However, Asia generates fewer e-waste per citizen (4,2 kg/inhabitant). Africa generates only 1.9 kg/inhabitant, and limited information is available on its collection percentage. The record furnishes regional breakdowns for Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe, and Oceania. The phenomenon somewhat illustrates the modest number figure linked to the overall volume of e-waste made that 41 countries have administrator e-waste data. For 16 other countries, e-waste volumes were collected from exploration and evaluated. The outcome of a considerable bulk of the e-waste (34.1 Metric tons) is unidentified. In countries where there is no national E-waste constitution in the stand, e-waste is possible interpreted as an alternative or general waste. This is land-filled or recycled, along with alternative metal or plastic scraps. There is the colossal compromise that the toxins are not drawn want of accordingly, or they are chosen want of by an informal sector and converted without well safeguarding the laborers while venting the contaminations in e-waste. Although the e-waste claim is on the rise, a flourishing quantity of countries are embracing e-waste regulation. National e-waste governance orders enclose 66% of the world population, a rise from 44% that was reached in 2014^[29]

E-waste data 2019

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In 2019, an enormous volume of e-waste (53.6 Mt, with a 7.3 kg per capita average) was generated globally. This is projected to increase to 74 Mt by 2030. Asia still remains the largest contributor of a significant volume of electronic waste at 24.9 Mt, followed by the Americas (13.1 Mt), Europe (12 Mt), and Africa and Oceania at 2.9 Mt and 0.7 Mt, respectively. In per capita generation, Europe came first with 16.2 kg, and Oceania was second largest generator at 16.1 kg, and followed by the Americas. Africa is the least generator of e-waste per capita at 2.5 kg. Regarding the collection and recycling of these waste, the continent of Europe ranked first (42.5%), and Asia came second (11.7%). The Americas and Oceania are next (9.4% and 8.8% respectively), and Africa trails behind at 0.9%. Out of the 53.6 Metric tons generated e-waste globally, the formally documented collection and recycling was 9.3%, and the fate of 44.3% remains uncertain, with its whereabouts and impact to the environment varying across different regions of the world. However, the number of countries with national e-waste legislation, regulation or policy, have increased since 2014, from 61 to 78. A great proportion of undocumented commercial and domestic waste get mixed with other streams of waste like plastic and metal waste, implying that fractions which are easily recyclable might be recycled, under conditions considered to be inferior without depollution and recovery of all materials considered valuable.^[30]

E-waste data 2021

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In 2021, an estimated of 57.4 Mt of e-waste was generated globally. According to estimates in Europe, where the problem is best studied, 11 of 72 electronic items in an average household are no longer in use or broken. Annually per citizen, another 4 to 5 kg of unused electrical and electronic products are hoarded in Europe prior to being discarded.^[31] In 2021, less than 20 percent of the e-waste is collected and recycled.^[32]

E-waste data 2022

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In 2022, an increase of 3.4% was estimated of the generated e-waste globally, hitting 59.4Mt, which made the total unrecycled e-waste on earth to 2022 is over 347 Mt.^[33] The transboundary flow of e-waste has gained attention from the public due to a number of worrisome headlines, but global study on the volumes and trading routes has not yet been conducted. According to the Transboundary E-waste Flows Monitor, 5.1 Mt (or slightly under 10% of the 53.6 Mt of global e-waste) crossed international boundaries in 2019. This study divides transboundary movement of e-waste into regulated and uncontrolled movements and takes into account both the receiving and sending regions in order to better comprehend the implications of such movement. Of the 5.1 Mt, 1.8 Mt of the transboundary movement is sent under regulated conditions, while 3.3 Mt of the transboundary movement is delivered under uncontrolled conditions because used EEE or e-waste may encourage unlawful movements and provide a risk to the proper management of e-waste.^[34]

E-waste legislative frameworks

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The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with Europe and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (June 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

The European Union (EU) has addressed the issue of electronic Waste by introducing two pieces of legislation. The first, the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive) came into force in 2003. [1] The main aim of this directive was to regulate and motivate electronic waste recycling and re-use in member states at that moment. It was revised in 2008, coming into force in 2014.[2] Furthermore, the EU has also implemented the Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment from 2003.[3] This documents was additionally revised in 2012.[4] When it comes to Western Balkan countries, North Macedonia has adopted a Law on Batteries and Accumulators in 2010, followed by the Law on Management of electrical and electronic equipment in 2012. Serbia has regulated management of special waste stream, including electronic waste, by National waste management strategy (2010–2019).[5] Montenegro has adopted Concessionary Act concerning electronic waste with ambition to collect 4 kg of this waste annually per person until 2020.[6] Albanian legal framework is based on the draft act on waste from electrical and electronic equipment from 2011 which focuses on the design of electrical and electronic equipment. Contrary to this, Bosnia and Herzegovina is still missing a law regulating electronic waste.

As of October 2019, 78 countries globally have established either a policy, legislation or specific regulation to govern e-waste.^[35] However, there is no clear indication that countries are following the regulations. Regions such as Asia and Africa are having policies that are not legally binding and rather only programmatic ones.^[36] Hence, this poses as a challenge that e-waste management policies are yet not fully developed by globally by countries.

Solving the e-waste Problem (StEP) initiative

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Main article: Solving the E-waste Problem

Solving the E-waste Problem is a membership organization that is part of United Nations University and was created to develop solutions to address issues associated with electronic waste. Some of the most eminent players in the fields of Production, Reuse and Recycling of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE), government agencies and NGOs as well as UN Organisations count themselves among its members. StEP encourages the collaboration of all stakeholders connected with e-waste, emphasizing a holistic, scientific yet applicable approach to the problem.:^[37]

Waste electrical and electronic equipment

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The European Commission (EC) of the EU has classified waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) as the waste generated from electrical devices and household appliances like refrigerators, televisions, and mobile phones and other devices. In 2005 the EU reported total waste of 9 million tonnes and in 2020 estimates waste of 12 million tonnes. This electronic waste with hazardous materials if not managed properly, may end up badly affecting our environment and causing fatal health issues. Disposing of these materials requires a lot of manpower and properly managed facilities. Not only the disposal, manufacturing of these types of materials require huge facilities and natural resources (aluminum, gold, copper and silicon, etc.), ending up damaging our environment and pollution.

Considering the impact of WEEE materials make on our environment, EU legislation has made two legislations: the WEEE Directive and the RoHS Directive: Directive on usage and restrictions of hazardous materials in producing these Electrical and Electronic Equipment.

WEEE Directive

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The WEEE Directive was implemented in February 2003, focusing on recycling electronic waste. This Directive offered many electronic waste collection schemes free of charge to the consumers (Directive 2002/96/EC^[38]).

The EC revised this Directive in December 2008, since this has become the fastest growing waste stream. In August 2012, the WEEE Directive was rolled out to handle the situation of controlling electronic waste and this was implemented on 14 February 2014 (Directive 2012/19/EU^[39]). On 18 April 2017, the EC adopted a common principle of carrying out research and implementing a new regulation to monitor the amount of WEEE. It requires each member state to monitor and report their national market data.

Annex III to the WEEE Directive (Directive 2012/19/EU): Re-examination of the timelines for waste collection and setting up individual targets.^[40]

WEEE Legislation

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On 4 July 2012, the EC passed legislation on WEEE (Directive 2012/19/EU [7]). To know more about the progress in adopting the Directive 2012/19/EU (Progress [8]).

On 15 February 2014, the EC revised the Directive. To know more about the old Directive 2002/96/EC, see (Report [9]).

RoHS Directive

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In 2003, the EC not only implemented legislation on waste collection but also the RoHS Directive on the alternative use of hazardous materials (Cadmium, mercury, flammable materials, polybrominated biphenyls, lead and polybrominated diphenyl ethers) used in the production of electronic and electric equipment (RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC^[41]).

This Directive was again revised in December 2008 and later again in January 2013 (RoHS recast Directive 2011/65/EU^[42]). In 2017, the EC has made adjustment to the existing Directive considering the impact assessmen^[43] and adopted to a new legislative proposal^[44] (RoHS 2 scope review^[45]). On 21 November 2017, the European Parliament and Council has published this legislation amending the RoHS 2 Directive in their official journal.^[46]

European Commission legislation on batteries and accumulators (Batteries Directive)

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Each year, the EU reports nearly 800 000 tons of batteries from automotive industry, industrial batteries of around 190 000 tons and consumer batteries around 160 000 tons entering the Europe region. These batteries are one of the most commonly used products in household appliances and other battery powered products in our day-to-day life. The important issue to look into is how this battery waste is collected and recycled properly, which has the consequences of resulting in hazardous materials release into the environment and water resources. Generally, many parts of these batteries and accumulators / capacitors can be recycled without releasing these hazardous materials release into our environment and contaminating our natural resources. The EC has rolled out a new Directive to control the waste from the batteries and accumulators known as ‘Batteries Directive’[10] aiming to improve the collecting and recycling process of the battery waste and control the impact of battery waste on our environment. This Directive also supervises and administers the internal market by implementing required measures. This Directive restricts the production and marketing of batteries and accumulators which contains hazardous materials and are harmful to the environment, difficult to collect and recycle them. Batteries Directive [11] targets on the collection, recycling and other recycling activities of batteries and accumulators, also approving labels to the batteries which are environment neutral. On 10 December 2020, The EC has proposed a new regulation (Batteries Regulation [12]) on the batteries waste which aims to make sure that batteries entering the European market are recyclable, sustainable and non-hazardous (Press release [13]).

Legislation: In 2006, the EC has adopted the Batteries Directive and revised it in 2013. – On 6 September 2006, the European Parliament and European Council have launched Directives in waste from Batteries and accumulators (Directive 2006/66/EC [14]). – Overview of Batteries and accumulators Legislation [15]

Evaluation of Directive 2006/66/EC (Batteries Directive): Revising Directives could be based on the Evaluation [16] process, considering the fact of the increase in the usage of batteries with an increase in the multiple communication technologies, household appliances and other small battery-powered products. The increase in the demand of renewable energies and recycling of the products has also led to an initiative ‘European Batteries Alliance (EBA)’ which aims to supervise the complete value chain of production of more improved batteries and accumulators within Europe under this new policy act. Though the adoption of the Evaluation [17] process has been broadly accepted, few concerns rose particularly managing and monitoring the use of hazardous materials in the production of batteries, collection of the battery waste, recycling of the battery waste within the Directives. The evaluation process has definitely gave good results in the areas like controlling the environmental damage, increasing the awareness of recycling, reusable batteries and also improving the efficiency of the internal markets.

However, there are few limitations in the implementations of the Batteries Directive in the process of collecting batteries waste and recovering the usable materials from them. The evaluation process throws some light on the gap in this process of implementation and collaborate technical aspects in the process and new ways to use makes it more difficult to implement and this Directive maintains the balance with technological advancements. The EC’s regulations and guidelines has made the evaluation process more impactful in a positive way. The participation of number of stakeholders in the evaluation process who are invited and asked to provide their views and ideas to improve the process of evaluation and information gathering. On 14 March 2018, stakeholders and members of the association participated to provide information about their findings, support and increase the process of Evaluation Roadmap [18].

European Union directives on e-waste

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The European Union (EU) has addressed the e-waste issue by adopting several directives. In 2011 an amendment was made to a 2003 Directive 2002/95/EC regarding restriction of the use of hazardous materials in the planning and manufacturing process in the EEE. In the 2011 Directive, 2011/65/EU it was stated as the motivation for more specific restriction on the usage of hazardous materials in the planning and manufacturing process of electronic and electrical devices as there was a disparity of the EU Member State laws and the need arose to set forth rules to protect human health and for the environmentally sound recovery and disposal of WEEE. (2011/65/EU, (2)) The Directive lists several substances subject to restriction. The Directive states restricted substances for maximum concentration values tolerated by weight in homogeneous materials are the following: lead (0.1%); mercury (0.1%), cadmium (0.1%), hexavalent chromium (0.1%), polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) (0.1%) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) (0.1 %). If technologically feasible and substitution is available, the usage of substitution is required.

There are, however, exemptions in the case in which substitution is not possible from the scientific and technical point of view. The allowance and duration of the substitutions should take into account the availability of the substitute and the socioeconomic impact of the substitute. (2011/65/EU, (18))

EU Directive 2012/19/EU regulates WEEE and lays down measures to safeguard the ecosystem and human health by inhibiting or shortening the impact of the generation and management of waste of WEEE. (2012/19/EU, (1)) The Directive takes a specific approach to the product design of EEE. It states in Article 4 that Member States are under the constraint to expedite the kind of model and manufacturing process as well as cooperation between producers and recyclers as to facilitate re-use, dismantling and recovery of WEEE, its components, and materials. (2012/19/EU, (4)) The Member States should create measures to make sure the producers of EEE use eco-design, meaning that the type of manufacturing process is used that would not restrict later re-use of WEEE. The Directive also gives Member States the obligation to ensure a separate collection and transportation of different WEEE. Article 8 lays out the requirements of the proper treatment of WEEE. The base minimum of proper treatment that is required for every WEEE is the removal of all liquids. The recovery targets set are seen in the following figures.

Under Annex I of Directive 2012/19/EU, the categories of EEE covered are as follows:

1. Large household appliances
2. Small household appliances
3. IT and telecommunications equipment
4. Consumer equipment and photovoltaic panels
5. Lighting equipment
6. Electrical and electronic tools (with the exception of large-scale stationary industrial tools)
7. Toys, leisure and sports equipment
8. Medical devices (with the exception of all implanted and infected products)
9. Monitoring and control instruments
10. Autonomic dispensers

Minimum recovery targets referred in Directive 2012/19/EU starting from 15 August 2018:

WEEE falling within category 1 or 10 of Annex I

– 85% shall be recovered, and 80% shall be prepared for re-use and recycled;

WEEE falling within category 3 or 4 of Annex I

– 80% shall be recovered, and 70% shall be prepared for re-use and recycled;

WEEE falling within category 2, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 of Annex I

-75% shall be recovered, and 55% shall be prepared for re-use and recycled;

For gas and discharged lamps, 80% shall be recycled.

In 2021, the European Commission proposed the implementation of a standardization – for iterations of USB-C – of phone charger products after commissioning two impact assessment studies and a technology analysis study. Regulations like this may reduce electronic waste by small but significant amounts as well as, in this case, increase device-interoperability, convergence and convenience for consumers while decreasing resource-needs and redundancy.^{[47][48][49][additional citation(s) needed]} The regulations were passed in June 2022, mandating that all phones sold in the EU to have USB-C charging ports by late 2024.^[50]

International agreements

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A report by the United Nations Environment Management Group^[51] lists key processes and agreements made by various organizations globally in an effort to manage and control e-waste. Details about the policies could be retrieved in the links below.

• International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) (73/78/97)^[52]
• Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989)^[53]
• Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances (1989)^[54]
• International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention on Chemicals, concerning safety in the use of chemicals at work (1990)^[55]
• Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Council Decision Waste Agreement (1992)
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (1994)
• International Conference on Chemicals Management (ICCM) (1995)
• Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (1998)
• Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2001)^[56]
• World Health Organisation (WHO), World Health Assembly Resolutions (2006–2016)
• Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships (2009) Archived 23 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine
• Minamata Convention on Mercury (2013)^[57]
• Paris Climate Agreement (2015) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change^[58]
• Connect 2020 Agenda for Global Telecommunication/ICT Development (2014)

Global trade issues

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See also: Global Waste Trade and Electronic waste by country

One theory is that increased regulation of electronic wastes and concern over the environmental harm in nature economies creates an economic disincentive to remove residues prior to export. Critics of trade in used electronics maintain that it is still too easy for brokers calling themselves recyclers to export unscreened electronic waste to developing countries, such as China,^[59] India and parts of Africa, thus avoiding the expense of removing items like bad cathode ray tubes (the processing of which is expensive and difficult). The developing countries have become toxic dump yards of e-waste. Developing countries receiving foreign e-waste often go further to repair and recycle forsaken equipment.^[60] Yet still 90% of e-waste ended up in landfills in developing countries in 2003.^[60] Proponents of international trade point to the success of fair trade programs in other industries, where cooperation has led to creation of sustainable jobs and can bring affordable technology in countries where repair and reuse rates are higher.

Defenders of the trade^[who?] in used electronics say that extraction of metals from virgin mining has been shifted to developing countries. Recycling of copper, silver, gold, and other materials from discarded electronic devices is considered better for the environment than mining. They also state that repair and reuse of computers and televisions has become a “lost art” in wealthier nations and that refurbishing has traditionally been a path to development.

South Korea, Taiwan, and southern China all excelled in finding “retained value” in used goods, and in some cases have set up billion-dollar industries in refurbishing used ink cartridges, single-use cameras, and working CRTs. Refurbishing has traditionally been a threat to established manufacturing, and simple protectionism explains some criticism of the trade. Works like “The Waste Makers” by Vance Packard explain some of the criticism of exports of working product, for example, the ban on import of tested working Pentium 4 laptops to China, or the bans on export of used surplus working electronics by Japan.

Opponents of surplus electronics exports argue that lower environmental and labor standards, cheap labor, and the relatively high value of recovered raw materials lead to a transfer of pollution-generating activities, such as smelting of copper wire. Electronic waste is often sent to various African and Asian countries such as China, Malaysia, India, and Kenya for processing, sometimes illegally. Many surplus laptops are routed to developing nations as “dumping grounds for e-waste”.^[61]

Because the United States has not ratified the Basel Convention or its Ban Amendment, and has few domestic federal laws forbidding the export of toxic waste, the Basel Action Network estimates that about 80% of the electronic waste directed to recycling in the U.S. does not get recycled there at all, but is put on container ships and sent to countries such as China.^{[62][63][64][65]} This figure is disputed as an exaggeration by the EPA, the Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries, and the World Reuse, Repair and Recycling Association.

Independent research by Arizona State University showed that 87–88% of imported used computers were priced above the constituent materials they contained, and that “the official trade in end-of-life computers is thus driven by reuse as opposed to recycling”.^[66]

Trade

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Proponents of the trade say growth of internet access is a stronger correlation to trade than poverty. Haiti is poor and closer to the port of New York than southeast Asia, but far more electronic waste is exported from New York to Asia than to Haiti. Thousands of men, women, and children are employed in reuse, refurbishing, repair, and re-manufacturing, unsustainable industries in decline in developed countries. Denying developing nations access to used electronics may deny them sustainable employment, affordable products, and internet access, or force them to deal with even less scrupulous suppliers. In a series of seven articles for The Atlantic, Shanghai-based reporter Adam Minter describes many of these computer repair and scrap separation activities as objectively sustainable.^[67]

Opponents of the trade argue that developing countries utilize methods that are more harmful and more wasteful. An expedient and prevalent method is simply to toss equipment onto an open fire, in order to melt plastics and to burn away non-valuable metals. This releases carcinogens and neurotoxins into the air, contributing to an acrid, lingering smog. These noxious fumes include dioxins and furans. Bonfire refuse can be disposed of quickly into drainage ditches or waterways feeding the ocean or local water supplies.^[65]

In June 2008, a container of electronic waste, destined from the Port of Oakland in the U.S. to Sanshui District in mainland China, was intercepted in Hong Kong by Greenpeace.^[68] Concern over exports of electronic waste were raised in press reports in India,^[69][70] Ghana,^[71][72] Côte d’Ivoire,^[73] and Nigeria.^[74]

The research that was undertaken by the Countering WEEE Illegal Trade (CWIT) project, funded by the European Commission, found that in Europe only 35% (3.3 million tons) of all the e-waste discarded in 2012 ended up in the officially reported amounts of collection and recycling systems. The other 65% (6.15 million tons) was either:

• Exported (1.5 million tons),
• Recycled under non-compliant conditions in Europe (3.15 million tons),
• Scavenged for valuable parts (750,000 tons), or
• Simply thrown in waste bins (750,000 tons).^[75]

Guiyu

[edit]

Main articles: Electronic waste in China and Electronic waste in Guiyu

Guiyu in the Guangdong region of China is a massive electronic waste processing community.^[62][76] It is often referred to as the “e-waste capital of the world.” Traditionally, Guiyu was an agricultural community; however, in the mid-1990s it transformed into an e-waste recycling center involving over 75% of the local households and an additional 100,000 migrant workers.^[77] Thousands of individual workshops employ laborers to snip cables, pry chips from circuit boards, grind plastic computer cases into particles, and dip circuit boards in acid baths to dissolve the precious metals. Others work to strip insulation from all wiring in an attempt to salvage tiny amounts of copper wire.^[78] Uncontrolled burning, disassembly, and disposal has led to a number of environmental problems such as groundwater contamination, atmospheric pollution, and water pollution either by immediate discharge or from surface runoff (especially near coastal areas), as well as health problems including occupational safety and health effects among those directly and indirectly involved, due to the methods of processing the waste.

Six of the many villages in Guiyu specialize in circuit-board disassembly, seven in plastics and metals reprocessing, and two in wire and cable disassembly. Greenpeace, an environmental group, sampled dust, soil, river sediment, and groundwater in Guiyu. They found very high levels of toxic heavy metals and organic contaminants in both places.^[79] Lai Yun, a campaigner for the group found “over 10 poisonous metals, such as lead, mercury, and cadmium.”

Guiyu is only one example of digital dumps but similar places can be found across the world in Nigeria, Ghana, and India.^[80]

Other informal e-waste recycling sites

[edit]

Guiyu is likely one of the oldest and largest informal e-waste recycling sites in the world; however, there are many sites worldwide, including India, Ghana (Agbogbloshie), Nigeria, and the Philippines. There are a handful of studies that describe exposure levels in e-waste workers, the community, and the environment. For example, locals and migrant workers in Delhi, a northern union territory of India, scavenge discarded computer equipment and extract base metals using toxic, unsafe methods.^[81] Bangalore, located in southern India, is often referred as the “Silicon Valley of India” and has a growing informal e-waste recycling sector.^[82][83] A study found that e-waste workers in the slum community had higher levels of V, Cr, Mn, Mo, Sn, Tl, and Pb than workers at an e-waste recycling facility.^[82]

Cryptocurrency e-waste

[edit]

Further information: Environmental impact of bitcoin

Bitcoin mining has also contributed to higher amounts in electronic waste. Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies can be used for payment or speculation. Per de Vries & Stoll in the journal Resources, Conservation and Recycling the average bitcoin transaction yields 272 grams of electronic waste and generated approximately 112.5 million grams of waste in 2020 alone.^[84] Other estimates indicate that the bitcoin network discards as much “small IT and telecommunication equipment waste produced by a country like the Netherlands,” totalling to 30.7 metric kilotons every year.^[84] Furthermore, the rate at which Bitcoin disposes of its waste exceeds that of major financial organizations such as VISA, which produces 40 grams of waste for every 100,000 transactions.^[85]

A major point of concern is the rapid turnover of technology in the bitcoin industry which results in such high levels of e-waste. This can be attributed to the proof-of-work principle bitcoin employs where miners receive currency as a reward for being the first to decode the hashes that encode its blockchain.^[86] As such, miners are encouraged to compete with one another to decode the hash first.^[86] However, computing these hashes requires massive computing power which, in effect, drives miners to obtain rigs with the highest processing power possible. In an attempt to achieve this, miners increase the processing power in their rigs by purchasing more advanced computer chips.^[86]

According to Koomey’s Law, efficiency in computer chips doubles every 1.5 years,^[87] meaning that miners are incentivized to purchase new chips to keep up with competing miners even though the older chips are still functional. In some cases, miners even discard their chips earlier than this timeframe for the sake of profitability.^[84] However, this leads to a significant build up in waste, as outdated application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC computer chips) cannot be reused or repurposed.^[86] Most computer chips used to mine bitcoin are ASIC chips, whose sole function is to mine bitcoin, rendering them useless for other cryptocurrencies or operation in any other piece of technology.^[86] Therefore, outdated ASIC chips can only be disposed of since they are unable to be repurposed.

The bitcoin e-waste problem is further exacerbated by the fact that many countries and corporations lack recycling programs for ASIC chips.^[84] Developing a recycling infrastructure for bitcoin mining may prove to be beneficial, though, as the aluminum heat sinks and metal casings in ASIC chips can be recycled into new technology.^[84] Much of this responsibility falls onto Bitmain, the leading manufacturer of bitcoin, which currently lacks the infrastructure to recycle waste from bitcoin mining.^[84] Without such programs, much of bitcoin waste ends up in landfill along with 83.6% of the global total of e-waste.^[84]

Many argue for relinquishing the proof-of-work model altogether in favour of the proof-of-stake one. This model selects one miner to validate the transactions in the blockchain, rather than have all miners competing for it.^[88] With no competition, the processing speed of miners’ rigs would not matter.^[84] Any device could be used for validating the blockchain, so there would be no incentive to use single-use ASIC chips or continually purchase new and dispose of old ones.^[84][88]

Environmental impact

[edit]

The processes of dismantling and disposing of electronic waste in developing countries led to a number of environmental impacts as illustrated in the graphic. Liquid and atmospheric releases end up in bodies of water, groundwater, soil, and air and therefore in land and sea animals – both domesticated and wild, in crops eaten by both animals and humans, and in drinking water.^[89]

One study of environmental effects in Guiyu, China found the following:^[16]

• Airborne dioxins – one type found at 100 times levels previously measured
• Levels of carcinogens in duck ponds and rice paddies exceeded international standards for agricultural areas and cadmium, copper, nickel, and lead levels in rice paddies were above international standards
• Heavy metals found in road dust – lead over 300 times that of a control village’s road dust and copper over 100 times

The Agbogbloshie area of Ghana, where about 40,000 people live, provides an example of how e-waste contamination can pervade the daily lives of nearly all residents. Into this area—one of the largest informal e-waste dumping and processing sites in Africa—about 215,000 tons of secondhand consumer electronics, primarily from Western Europe, are imported annually. Because this region has considerable overlap among industrial, commercial, and residential zones, Pure Earth (formerly Blacksmith Institute) has ranked Agbogbloshie as one of the world’s 10 worst toxic threats (Blacksmith Institute 2013).^[90]

A separate study at the Agbogbloshie e-waste dump, Ghana found a presence of lead levels as high as 18,125 ppm in the soil.^[91] US EPA standard for lead in soil in play areas is 400 ppm and 1200 ppm for non-play areas.^[92] Scrap workers at the Agbogbloshie e-waste dump regularly burn electronic components and auto harness wires for copper recovery,^[93] releasing toxic chemicals like lead, dioxins and furans^[94] into the environment.

Researchers such as Brett Robinson, a professor of soil and physical sciences at Lincoln University in New Zealand, warn that wind patterns in Southeast China disperse toxic particles released by open-air burning across the Pearl River Delta Region, home to 45 million people. In this way, toxic chemicals from e-waste enter the “soil-crop-food pathway,” one of the most significant routes for heavy metals’ exposure to humans. These chemicals are not biodegradable— they persist in the environment for long periods of time, increasing exposure risk.^[95]

In the agricultural district of Chachoengsao, in the east of Bangkok, local villagers had lost their main water source as a result of e-waste dumping. The cassava fields were transformed in late 2017, when a nearby Chinese-run factory started bringing in foreign e-waste items such as crushed computers, circuit boards and cables for recycling to mine the electronics for valuable metal components like copper, silver and gold. But the items also contain lead, cadmium and mercury, which are highly toxic if mishandled during processing. Apart from feeling faint from noxious fumes emitted during processing, a local claimed the factory has also contaminated her water. “When it was raining, the water went through the pile of waste and passed our house and went into the soil and water system. Water tests conducted in the province by environmental group Earth and the local government both found toxic levels of iron, manganese, lead, nickel and in some cases arsenic and cadmium. The communities observed when they used water from the shallow well, there was some development of skin disease or there are foul smells”, founder of Earth, Penchom Saetang, said: “This is proof, that it is true, as the communities suspected, there are problems happening to their water sources.”^[96]

E-waste Component	Process Used	Potential Environmental Hazard
Cathode ray tubes (used in TVs, computer monitors, ATM, video cameras, and more)	Breaking and removal of yoke, then dumping	Lead, barium and other heavy metals leaching into the ground water and release of toxic phosphor
Printed circuit board (image behind table – a thin plate on which chips and other electronic components are placed)	De-soldering and removal of computer chips; open burning and acid baths to remove metals after chips are removed.	Air emissions and discharge into rivers of glass dust, tin, lead, brominated dioxin, beryllium cadmium, and mercury
Chips and other gold plated components	Chemical stripping using nitric and hydrochloric acid and burning of chips	PAHs, heavy metals, brominated flame retardants discharged directly into rivers acidifying fish and flora. Tin and lead contamination of surface and groundwater. Air emissions of brominated dioxins, heavy metals, and PAHs
Plastics from printers, keyboards, monitors, etc.	Shredding and low temp melting to be reused	Emissions of brominated dioxins, heavy metals, and hydrocarbons
Computer wires	Open burning and stripping to remove copper	PAHs released into air, water, and soil.

Depending on the age and type of the discarded item, the chemical composition of e-waste may vary. Most e-waste are composed of a mixture of metals like Cu, Al and Fe. They might be attached to, covered with or even mixed with various types of plastics and ceramics. E-waste has a horrible effect on the environment and it is important to dispose it with an R2 certifies recycling facility.^[98]

Research

[edit]

In May 2020, a scientific study was conducted in China that investigated the occurrence and distribution of traditional and novel classes of contaminants, including chlorinated, brominated, and mixed halogenated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs, PBDD/Fs, PXDD/Fs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polyhalogenated carbazoles (PHCZs) in soil from an e-waste disposal site in Hangzhou (which has been in operation since 2009 and has a treatment capacity of 19.6 Wt/a). While the study area has only one formal emission source, the broader industrial zone has a number of metal recovery and reprocessing plants as well as heavy traffic on adjacent motorways where normal and heavy-duty devices are used. The maximum concentrations of the target halogenated organic compounds HOCs were 0.1–1.5 km away from the main source and overall detected levels of HOCs were generally lower than those reported globally. The study proved what researchers have warned, i. e. on highways with heavy traffic, especially those serving diesel powered vehicles, exhaust emissions are larger sources of dioxins than stationary sources. When assessing the environmental and health impacts of chemical compounds, especially PBDD/Fs and PXDD/Fs, the compositional complexity of soil and long period weather conditions like rain and downwind have to be taken into account. Further investigations are necessary to build up a common understanding and methods for assessing e-waste impacts.^[99]

Information security

[edit]

Discarded data processing equipment may still contain readable data that may be considered sensitive to the previous users of the device. A recycling plan for such equipment can support information security by ensuring proper steps are followed to erase the sensitive information. This may include such steps as re-formatting of storage media and overwriting with random data to make data unrecoverable, or even physical destruction of media by shredding and incineration to ensure all data is obliterated. For example, on many operating systems deleting a file may still leave the physical data file intact on the media, allowing data retrieval by routine methods.

Recycling

[edit]

Main article: Electronic waste recycling

See also: Appliance recycling and Mobile phone recycling

Recycling is an essential element of e-waste management. Properly carried out, it should greatly reduce the leakage of toxic materials into the environment and militate against the exhaustion of natural resources. However, it does need to be encouraged by local authorities and through community education. Less than 20% of e-waste is formally recycled, with 80% either ending up in landfill or being informally recycled – much of it by hand in developing countries, exposing workers to hazardous and carcinogenic substances such as mercury, lead and cadmium.^[100]

There are generally three methods of extracting precious metals from electronic waste, namely hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical, and hydro-pyrometallurgical methods. Each of these methods has its own advantages and disadvantages together with the production of toxic waste.^[24]

One of the major challenges is recycling the printed circuit boards from electronic waste. The circuit boards contain such precious metals as gold, silver, platinum, etc. and such base metals as copper, iron, aluminum, etc. One way e-waste is processed is by melting circuit boards, burning cable sheathing to recover copper wire and open- pit acid leaching for separating metals of value.^[16] Conventional method employed is mechanical shredding and separation but the recycling efficiency is low. Alternative methods such as cryogenic decomposition have been studied for printed circuit board recycling,^[101] and some other methods are still under investigation. In 2023 an AF aerogel using protein fibrils in an aerogel matrix was developed for the adsorption of gold from circuit boards.^[102]

Properly disposing of or reusing electronics can help prevent health problems, reduce greenhouse-gas emissions, and create jobs.^[103]

Consumer awareness efforts

[edit]

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency encourages electronic recyclers to become certified by demonstrating to an accredited, independent third party auditor that they meet specific standards to safely recycle and manage electronics. This should work so as to ensure the highest environmental standards are being maintained. Two certifications for electronic recyclers currently exist and are endorsed by the EPA. Customers are encouraged to choose certified electronics recyclers. Responsible electronics recycling reduces environmental and human health impacts, increases the use of reusable and refurbished equipment and reduces energy use while conserving limited resources. The two EPA-endorsed certification programs are Responsible Recyclers Practices (R2) and E-Stewards. Certified companies ensure they are meeting strict environmental standards which maximize reuse and recycling, minimize exposure to human health or the environment, ensure safe management of materials and require destruction of all data used on electronics.^[104] Certified electronics recyclers have demonstrated through audits and other means that they continually meet specific high environmental standards and safely manage used electronics. Once certified, the recycler is held to the particular standard by continual oversight by the independent accredited certifying body. A certification board accredits and oversees certifying bodies to ensure that they meet specific responsibilities and are competent to audit and provide certification.^[105]

Some U.S. retailers offer opportunities for consumer recycling of discarded electronic devices.^[106][107] In the US, the Consumer Electronics Association (CEA) urges consumers to dispose properly of end-of-life electronics through its recycling locator. This list only includes manufacturer and retailer programs that use the strictest standards and third-party certified recycling locations, to provide consumers assurance that their products will be recycled safely and responsibly. CEA research has found that 58 percent of consumers know where to take their end-of-life electronics, and the electronics industry would very much like to see that level of awareness increase. Consumer electronics manufacturers and retailers sponsor or operate more than 5,000 recycling locations nationwide and have vowed to recycle one billion pounds annually by 2016,^[108] a sharp increase from 300 million pounds industry recycled in 2010.

The Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) Electronic Challenge was created by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 2012.^[109] Participants of the Challenge are manufacturers of electronics and electronic retailers. These companies collect end-of-life (EOL) electronics at various locations and send them to a certified, third-party recycler. Program participants are then able publicly promote and report 100% responsible recycling for their companies.^[110] The Electronics TakeBack Coalition (ETBC)^[111] is a campaign aimed at protecting human health and limiting environmental effects where electronics are being produced, used, and discarded. The ETBC aims to place responsibility for disposal of technology products on electronic manufacturers and brand owners, primarily through community promotions and legal enforcement initiatives. It provides recommendations for consumer recycling and a list of recyclers judged environmentally responsible.^[112] While there have been major benefits from the rise in recycling and waste collection created by producers and consumers, such as valuable materials being recovered and kept away from landfill and incineration, there are still many problems present with the EPR system including “how to ensure proper enforcement of recycling standards, what to do about waste with positive net value, and the role of competition,” (Kunz et al.). Many stakeholders agreed there needs to be a higher standard of accountability and efficiency to improve the systems of recycling everywhere, as well as the growing amount of waste being an opportunity more so than downfall since it gives us more chances to create an efficient system. To make recycling competition more cost-effective, the producers agreed that there needs to be a higher drive for competition because it allows them to have a wider range of producer responsibility organizations to choose from for e-waste recycling.^[113]

The Certified Electronics Recycler program^[114] for electronic recyclers is a comprehensive, integrated management system standard that incorporates key operational and continual improvement elements for quality, environmental and health and safety performance. The grassroots Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition promotes human health and addresses environmental justice problems resulting from toxins in technologies. The World Reuse, Repair, and Recycling Association (wr3a.org) is an organization dedicated to improving the quality of exported electronics, encouraging better recycling standards in importing countries, and improving practices through “Fair Trade” principles. Take Back My TV^[115] is a project of The Electronics TakeBack Coalition and grades television manufacturers to find out which are responsible, in the coalition’s view, and which are not.

There have also been efforts to raise awareness of the potentially hazardous conditions of the dismantling of e-waste in American prisons. The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition, prisoner-rights activists, and environmental groups released a Toxic Sweatshops report that details how prison labor is being used to handle e-waste, resulting in health consequences among the workers.^[116] These groups allege that, since prisons do not have adequate safety standards, inmates are dismantling the products under unhealthy and unsafe conditions.^[117]

Processing techniques

[edit]

In many developed countries, electronic waste processing usually first involves dismantling the equipment into various parts (metal frames, power supplies, circuit boards, plastics), often by hand, but increasingly by automated shredding equipment. A typical example is the NADIN electronic waste processing plant in Novi Iskar, Bulgaria—the largest facility of its kind in Eastern Europe.^[118][119] The advantages of this process are the human worker’s ability to recognize and save working and repairable parts, including chips, transistors, RAM, etc. The disadvantage is that the labor is cheapest in countries with the lowest health and safety standards.

In an alternative bulk system,^[120] a hopper conveys material for shredding into an unsophisticated mechanical separator, with screening and granulating machines to separate constituent metal and plastic fractions, which are sold to smelters or plastics recyclers. Such recycling machinery is enclosed and employs a dust collection system. Some of the emissions are caught by scrubbers and screens. Magnets, eddy currents, and Trommel screens are employed to separate glass, plastic, and ferrous and nonferrous metals, which can then be further separated at a smelter.

Copper, gold, palladium, silver and tin are valuable metals sold to smelters for recycling. Hazardous smoke and gases are captured, contained and treated to mitigate environmental threat. These methods allow for safe reclamation of all valuable computer construction materials. Hewlett-Packard product recycling solutions manager Renee St. Denis describes its process as: “We move them through giant shredders about 30 feet tall and it shreds everything into pieces about the size of a quarter. Once your disk drive is shredded into pieces about this big, it’s hard to get the data off”.^[121] An ideal electronic waste recycling plant combines dismantling for component recovery with increased cost-effective processing of bulk electronic waste. Reuse is an alternative option to recycling because it extends the lifespan of a device. Devices still need eventual recycling, but by allowing others to purchase used electronics, recycling can be postponed and value gained from device use.

In early November 2021, the U.S. state of Georgia announced a joint effort with Igneo Technologies to build an $85 million large electronics recycling plant in the Port of Savannah. The project will focus on lower-value, plastics-heavy devices in the waste stream using multiple shredders and furnaces using pyrolysis technology.^[122]

Benefits of recycling

[edit]

Recycling raw materials from end-of-life electronics is the most effective solution to the growing e-waste problem.^[123] Most electronic devices contain a variety of materials, including metals that can be recovered for future uses. By dismantling and providing reuse possibilities, intact natural resources are conserved and air and water pollution caused by hazardous disposal is avoided. Additionally, recycling reduces the amount of greenhouse gas emissions caused by the manufacturing of new products.^[124] Another benefit of recycling e-waste is that many of the materials can be recycled and re-used again. Materials that can be recycled include “ferrous (iron-based) and non-ferrous metals, glass, and various types of plastic.” “Non-ferrous metals, mainly aluminum and copper can all be re-smelted and re-manufactured. Ferrous metals such as steel and iron also can be re-used.”^[125] Due to the recent surge in popularity in 3D printing, certain 3D printers have been designed (FDM variety) to produce waste that can be easily recycled which decreases the amount of harmful pollutants in the atmosphere.^[126] The excess plastic from these printers that comes out as a byproduct can also be reused to create new 3D printed creations.^[127]

Benefits of recycling are extended when responsible recycling methods are used. In the U.S., responsible recycling aims to minimize the dangers to human health and the environment that disposed and dismantled electronics can create. Responsible recycling ensures best management practices of the electronics being recycled, worker health and safety, and consideration for the environment locally and abroad.^[128] In Europe, metals that are recycled are returned to companies of origin at a reduced cost.^[129] Through a committed recycling system, manufacturers in Japan have been pushed to make their products more sustainable. Since many companies were responsible for the recycling of their own products, this imposed responsibility on manufacturers requiring many to redesign their infrastructure. As a result, manufacturers in Japan have the added option to sell the recycled metals.^[130]

Improper management of e-waste is resulting in a significant loss of scarce and valuable raw materials, such as gold, platinum, cobalt and rare earth elements. As much as 7% of the world’s gold may currently be contained in e-waste, with 100 times more gold in a tonne of e-waste than in a tonne of gold ore.^[100]

Repair as waste reduction method

[edit]

There are several ways to curb the environmental hazards arising from the recycling of electronic waste. One of the factors which exacerbate the e-waste problem is the diminishing lifetime of many electrical and electronic goods. There are two drivers (in particular) for this trend. On the one hand, consumer demand for low cost products militates against product quality and results in short product lifetimes.^[131] On the other, manufacturers in some sectors encourage a regular upgrade cycle, and may even enforce it though restricted availability of spare parts, service manuals and software updates, or through planned obsolescence.

Consumer dissatisfaction with this state of affairs has led to a growing repair movement. Often, this is at a community level such as through repair cafės or the “restart parties” promoted by the Restart Project.^[132]

The right to repair is spearheaded in the US by farmers dissatisfied with non-availability of service information, specialised tools and spare parts for their high-tech farm machinery. But the movement extends far beyond farm machinery with, for example, the restricted repair options offered by Apple coming in for criticism. Manufacturers often counter with safety concerns resulting from unauthorised repairs and modifications.^[133]

An easy method of reducing electronic waste footprint is to sell or donate electronic gadgets, rather than dispose of them. Improperly disposed e-waste is becoming more and more hazardous, especially as the sheer volume of e-waste increases. For this reason, large brands like Apple, Samsung, and others have started giving options to customers to recycle old electronics. Recycling allows the expensive electronic parts inside to be reused. This may save significant energy and reduce the need for mining of additional raw resources, or manufacture of new components. Electronic recycling programs may be found locally in many areas with a simple online search; for example, by searching “recycle electronics” along with the city or area name.

Cloud services have proven to be useful in storing data, which is then accessible from anywhere in the world without the need to carry storage devices. Cloud storage also allows for large storage, at low cost. This offers convenience, while reducing the need for manufacture of new storage devices, thus curbing the amount of e-waste generated.^[134]

Electronic waste classification

[edit]

The market has a lot of different types of electrical products. To categorize these products, it is necessary to group them into sensible and practical categories. Classification of the products may even help to determine the process to be used for disposal of the product. Making the classifications, in general, is helping to describe e-waste. Classifications has not defined special details, for example when they do not pose a threat to the environment. On the other hand, classifications should not be too aggregated because of countries differences in interpretation.^[135] The UNU-KEYs system closely follows the harmonized statistical (HS) coding. It is an international nomenclature which is an integrated system to allow classify common basis for customs purposes.^[135]

Electronic waste substances

[edit]

Some computer components can be reused in assembling new computer products, while others are reduced to metals that can be reused in applications as varied as construction, flatware, and jewellery. Substances found in large quantities include epoxy resins, fiberglass, PCBs, PVC (polyvinyl chlorides), thermosetting plastics, lead, tin, copper, silicon, beryllium, carbon, iron, and aluminum. Elements found in small amounts include cadmium, mercury, and thallium.^[136] Elements found in trace amounts include americium, antimony, arsenic, barium, bismuth, boron, cobalt, europium, gallium, germanium, gold, indium, lithium, manganese, nickel, niobium, palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, selenium,^[137] silver, tantalum, terbium, thorium, titanium, vanadium, and yttrium. Almost all electronics contain lead and tin (as solder) and copper (as wire and printed circuit board tracks), though the use of lead-free solder is now spreading rapidly. The following are ordinary applications:

Hazardous

[edit]

E-waste Component	Electric Appliances in which they are found	Adverse Health Effects
Americium	The radioactive source in smoke alarms.	It is known to be carcinogenic.[138]
Lead	Solder, CRT monitor glass, lead–acid batteries, some formulations of PVC. A typical 15-inch cathode ray tube may contain 1.5 pounds of lead,[10] but other CRTs have been estimated as having up to 8 pounds of lead.	Adverse effects of lead exposure include impaired cognitive function, behavioral disturbances, attention deficits, hyperactivity, conduct problems, and lower IQ.[139] These effects are most damaging to children whose developing nervous systems are very susceptible to damage caused by lead, cadmium, and mercury.[140]
Mercury	Found in fluorescent tubes (numerous applications), tilt switches (mechanical doorbells, thermostats),[141] and ccfl backlights in flat screen monitors.	Health effects include sensory impairment, dermatitis, memory loss, and muscle weakness. Exposure in-utero causes fetal deficits in motor function, attention, and verbal domains.[139] Environmental effects in animals include death, reduced fertility, and slower growth and development.
Cadmium	Found in light-sensitive resistors, corrosion-resistant alloys for marine and aviation environments, and nickel–cadmium batteries. The most common form of cadmium is found in nickel–cadmium rechargeable batteries. These batteries tend to contain between 6 and 18% cadmium. The sale of nickel–cadmium batteries has been banned in the EU except for medical use. When not properly recycled it can leach into the soil, harming microorganisms and disrupting the soil ecosystem. Exposure is caused by proximity to hazardous waste sites and factories and workers in the metal refining industry.	The inhalation of cadmium can cause severe damage to the lungs and is also known to cause kidney damage.[142] Cadmium is also associated with deficits in cognition, learning, behavior, and neuromotor skills in children.[139]
Hexavalent chromium	Used in metal coatings to protect from corrosion.	A known carcinogen after occupational inhalation exposure.[139]There is also evidence of cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of some chemicals, which have been shown to inhibit cell proliferation, cause cell membrane lesion, cause DNA single-strand breaks, and elevate Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) levels.[143]
Sulfur	Found in lead–acid batteries.	Health effects include liver damage, kidney damage, heart damage, eye and throat irritation. When released into the environment, it can create sulfuric acid through sulfur dioxide.
Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs)	Used as flame retardants in plastics in most electronics. Includes PBBs, PBDE, DecaBDE, OctaBDE, PentaBDE.	Health effects include impaired development of the nervous system, thyroid problems, liver problems.[144] Environmental effects: similar effects as in animals as humans. PBBs were banned from 1973 to 1977 on. PCBs were banned during the 1980s.
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA)	Used as an antistatic additive in industrial applications and found in electronics, also found in non-stick cookware (PTFE). PFOAs are formed synthetically through environmental degradation.	Studies in mice have found the following health effects: Hepatotoxicity, developmental toxicity, immunotoxicity, hormonal effects and carcinogenic effects. Studies have found increased maternal PFOA levels to be associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion (miscarriage) and stillbirth. Increased maternal levels of PFOA are also associated with decreases in mean gestational age (preterm birth), mean birth weight (low birth weight), mean birth length (small for gestational age), and mean APGAR score.[145]
Beryllium oxide	Filler in some thermal interface materials such as thermal grease used on heatsinks for CPUs and power transistors,[146] magnetrons, X-ray-transparent ceramic windows, heat transfer fins in vacuum tubes, and gas lasers.	Occupational exposures associated with lung cancer, other common adverse health effects are beryllium sensitization, chronic beryllium disease, and acute beryllium disease.[147]
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)	Commonly found in electronics and is typically used as insulation for electrical cables.[148]	In the manufacturing phase, toxic and hazardous raw material, including dioxins are released. PVC such as chlorine tend to bioaccumulate.[149] Over time, the compounds that contain chlorine can become pollutants in the air, water, and soil. This poses a problem as human and animals can ingest them. Additionally, exposure to toxins can result in reproductive and developmental health effects.[150]

Generally non-hazardous

[edit]

E-waste component	Process used
Aluminum	Nearly all electronic goods using more than a few watts of power (heatsinks), ICs, electrolytic capacitors
Copper	Copper wire, printed circuit board tracks, ICs, component leads
Germanium[137]	1950s–1960s transistorized electronics (bipolar junction transistors)
Gold	Connector plating, primarily in computer equipment
Lithium	Lithium-ion batteries
Nickel	Nickel–cadmium batteries
Silicon	Glass, transistors, ICs, printed circuit boards
Tin	Solder, coatings on component leads
Zinc	Plating for steel parts

Human health and safety

[edit]

Residents living near recycling sites

[edit]

Residents living around the e-waste recycling sites, even if they do not involve in e-waste recycling activities, can also face the environmental exposure due to the food, water, and environmental contamination caused by e-waste, because they can easily contact to e-waste contaminated air, water, soil, dust, and food sources. In general, there are three main exposure pathways: inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact.^[152]

Studies show that people living around e-waste recycling sites have a higher daily intake of heavy metals and a more serious body burden. Potential health risks include mental health, impaired cognitive function, and general physical health damage^[153] (see also Electronic waste#Hazardous). DNA damage was also found more prevalent in all the e-waste exposed populations (i.e. adults, children, and neonates) than the populations in the control area.^[153] DNA breaks can increase the likelihood of wrong replication and thus mutation, as well as lead to cancer if the damage is to a tumor suppressor gene.^[143]

Prenatal exposure and neonates’ health

[edit]

Prenatal exposure to e-waste has found to have adverse effects on human body burden of pollutants of the neonates. In Guiyu, one of the most famous e-waste recycling sites in China, it was found that increased cord blood lead concentration of neonates was associated with parents’ participation in e-waste recycling processes, as well as how long the mothers spent living in Guiyu and in e-waste recycling factories or workshops during pregnancy.^[152] Besides, a higher placental metallothionein (a small protein marking the exposure of toxic metals) was found among neonates from Guiyu as a result of Cd exposure, while the higher Cd level in Guiyu’s neonates was related to the involvement in e-waste recycling of their parents.^[154] High PFOA exposure of mothers in Guiyu is related to adverse effect on growth of their new-born and the prepotency in this area.^[155]

Prenatal exposure to informal e-waste recycling can also lead to several adverse birth outcomes (still birth, low birth weight, low Apgar scores, etc.) and longterm effects such as behavioral and learning problems of the neonates in their future life.^[156]

Children

[edit]

Children are especially sensitive to e-waste exposure because of several reasons, such as their smaller size, higher metabolism rate, larger surface area in relation to their weight, and multiple exposure pathways (for example, dermal, hand-to-mouth, and take-home exposure).^[157][153] They were measured to have an 8-time potential health risk compared to the adult e-waste recycling workers.^[153] Studies have found significant higher blood lead levels (BLL) and blood cadmium levels (BCL) of children living in e-waste recycling area compared to those living in control area.^[158][159] For example, one study found that the average BLL in Guiyu was nearly 1.5 times compared to that in the control site (15.3 ug/dL compared to 9.9 ug/dL),^[158] while the CDC of the United States has set a reference level for blood lead at 5 ug/dL.^[160] The highest concentrations of lead were found in the children of parents whose workshop dealt with circuit boards and the lowest was among those who recycled plastic.^[158]

Exposure to e-waste can cause serious health problems to children. Children’s exposure to developmental neurotoxins containing in e-waste such as lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, arsenic, nickel ^[161] and PBDEs can lead to a higher risk of lower IQ, impaired cognitive function, exposure to known human carcinogens^[161] and other adverse effects.^[162] In certain age groups, a decreased lung function of children in e-waste recycling sites has been found.^[152] Some studies also found associations between children’s e-waste exposure and impaired coagulation,^[163] hearing loss,^[164] and decreased vaccine antibody tilters^[165] in e-waste recycling area. For instance, nickel exposure in boys aged 8–9 years at an e-waste site leads to lower forced vital capacity, decrease in catalase activities and significant increase in superoxide dismutase activities and malondialdehyde levels.^[161]

E-waste recycling workers

[edit]

The complex composition and improper handling of e-waste adversely affect human health. A growing body of epidemiological and clinical evidence has led to increased concern about the potential threat of e-waste to human health, especially in developing countries such as India and China. For instance, in terms of health hazards, open burning of printed wiring boards increases the concentration of dioxins in the surrounding areas. These toxins cause an increased risk of cancer if inhaled by workers and local residents. Toxic metals and poison can also enter the bloodstream during the manual extraction and collection of tiny quantities of precious metals, and workers are continuously exposed to poisonous chemicals and fumes of highly concentrated acids. Recovering resalable copper by burning insulated wires causes neurological disorders, and acute exposure to cadmium, found in semiconductors and chip resistors, can damage the kidneys and liver and cause bone loss. Long-term exposure to lead on printed circuit boards and computer and television screens can damage the central and peripheral nervous system and kidneys, and children are more susceptible to these harmful effects.^[166]

The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) has summarized several potential safety hazards of recycling workers in general, such as crushing hazards, hazardous energy released, and toxic metals.^[167]

Hazards	Details
Slips, trips, and falls	They can happen during collecting and transporting e-waste.
Crushing hazards	Workers can be stuck or crushed by the machine or the e-waste. There can be traffic accidents when transporting e-waste. Using machines that have moving parts, such as conveyors and rolling machines can also cause crush accidents, leading to amputations, crushed fingers or hands.
Hazardous energy released	Unexpected machine startup can cause death or injury to workers. This can happen during the installation, maintenance, or repair of machines, equipment, processes, or systems.
Cuts and lacerations	Hands or body injuries and eye injuries can occur when dismantling e-waste that has sharp edges.
Noise	Working overtime near loud noises from drilling, hammering, and other tools that can make a great noise lead to hearing loss.
Toxic chemicals (dusts)	Burning e-waste to extract metals emits toxic chemicals (e.g. PAHs, lead) from e-waste to the air, which can be inhaled or ingested by workers at recycling sites. This can lead to illness from toxic chemicals.

OSHA has also specified some chemical components of electronics that can potentially do harm to e-recycling workers’ health, such as lead, mercury, PCBs, asbestos, refractory ceramic fibers (RCFs), and radioactive substances.^[167] Besides, in the United States, most of these chemical hazards have specific Occupational exposure limits (OELs) set by OSHA, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).

Hazardous chemicals	OELs (mg/m^3)	Type of OELs
Lead (Pb)	0.05[169]	NIOSH recommended exposure limits (REL), time weighted average (TWA)
Mercury (Hg)	0.05[170]	NIOSH REL, TWA
Cadmium (Cd)	0.005[171]	OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL), TWA
Hexavalent chromium	0.005[172]	OSHA PEL, TWA
Sulfur dioxide	5[173]	NIOSH REL, TWA

For the details of health consequences of these chemical hazards, see also Electronic waste#Electronic waste substances.

Informal and formal industries

[edit]

Informal e-recycling industry refers to small e-waste recycling workshops with few (if any) automatic procedures and personal protective equipment (PPE). On the other hand, formal e-recycling industry refers to regular e-recycling facilities sorting materials from e-waste with automatic machinery and manual labor, where pollution control and PPE are common.^[152][174] Sometimes formal e-recycling facilities dismantle the e-waste to sort materials, then distribute it to other downstream recycling department to further recover materials such as plastic and metals.^[174]

The health impact of e-waste recycling workers working in informal industry and formal industry are expect to be different in the extent.^[174] Studies in three recycling sites in China suggest that the health risks of workers from formal e-recycling facilities in Jiangsu and Shanghai were lower compared to those worked in informal e-recycling sites in Guiyu.^[153] The primitive methods used by unregulated backyard operators (e.g., the informal sector) to reclaim, reprocess, and recycle e-waste materials expose the workers to a number of toxic substances. Processes such as dismantling components, wet chemical processing, and incineration are used and result in direct exposure and inhalation of harmful chemicals. Safety equipment such as gloves, face masks, and ventilation fans are virtually unknown, and workers often have little idea of what they are handling.^[175] In another study of e-waste recycling in India, hair samples were collected from workers at an e-waste recycling facility and an e-waste recycling slum community (informal industry) in Bangalore.^[82] Levels of V, Cr, Mn, Mo, Sn, Tl, and Pb were significantly higher in the workers at the e-waste recycling facility compared to the e-waste workers in the slum community. However, Co, Ag, Cd, and Hg levels were significantly higher in the slum community workers compared to the facility workers.

Even in formal e-recycling industry, workers can be exposed to excessive pollutants. Studies in the formal e-recycling facilities in France and Sweden found workers’ overexposure (compared to recommended occupational guidelines) to lead, cadmium, mercury and some other metals, as well as BFRs, PCBs, dioxin and furans. Workers in formal industry are also exposed to more brominated flame-retardants than reference groups.^[174]

Hazard controls

[edit]

For occupational health and safety of e-waste recycling workers, both employers and workers should take actions. Suggestions for the e-waste facility employers and workers given by California Department of Public Health are illustrated in the graphic.

Hazards	What must employers do	What should workers do
General	Actions include:Determine the hazards in the workplace and take actions to control them;Check and make correction to the workplace condition regularly;Supply safe tools and PPE to workers;Provide workers with training about hazards and safe work practice;A written document about injury and illness prevention.	Suggestions include:Wear PPE when working;Talk with employers about ways to improve working conditions;Report anything unsafe in the workplace to employers;Share experience of how to work safely with new workers.
Dust	Actions include:Offer a clean eating area, cleaning area and supplies, uniforms and shoes, and lockers for clean clothes to the workers;Provide tools to dismantle the e-waste.If the dust contains lead or cadmium:Measure the dust, lead and cadmium level in the air;Provide cleaning facilities such as wet mops and vacuums;Provide exhaust ventilation. If it is still not sufficient to reduce the dust, provide workers with respirators;Provide workers with blood lead testing when lead level is not less than 30 mg/m3.	Protective measures include:Clean the workplace regularly, and do not eat or smoke when dealing with e-waste;Do not use brooms to clean the workplace since brooms can raise dust;Before going home, shower, change into clean clothes, and separate the dirty work clothes and clean clothes;Test the blood lead, even if the employers do not provide it;Use respirator, check for leaks every time before use, always keep it on your face in the respirator use area, and clean it properly after use.
Cuts and lacerations	Protective equipment such as gloves, masks and eye protection equipments should be provided to workers	When dealing with glass or shredding materials, protect the hands and arms using special gloves and oversleeves.
Noise	Actions include:Measure the noise in the workplace, and use engineering controls when levels exceed the exposure limit;Reduce the vibration of the working desk by rubber matting;Provide workers with earmuffs when necessary.	Wear the hearing protection all the time when working. Ask for the employer about the noise monitoring results. Test the hearing ability.
Lifting injuries	Provide facilities to lift or move the e-waste and adjustable work tables.	When handling e-waste, try to decrease the load per time. Try to get help from other workers when lifting heavy or big things.

See also

Technology is the application of conceptual knowledge to achieve practical goals, especially in a reproducible way.^[1] The word technology can also mean the products resulting from such efforts,^[2][3] including both tangible tools such as utensils or machines, and intangible ones such as software. Technology plays a critical role in science, engineering, and everyday life.

Technological advancements have led to significant changes in society. The earliest known technology is the stone tool, used during prehistory, followed by the control of fire—which in turn contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language during the Ice Age, according to the cooking hypothesis. The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age allowed greater travel and the creation of more complex machines. More recent technological inventions, including the printing press, telephone, and the Internet, have lowered barriers to communication and ushered in the knowledge economy.

While technology contributes to economic development and improves human prosperity, it can also have negative impacts like pollution and resource depletion, and can cause social harms like technological unemployment resulting from automation. As a result, philosophical and political debates about the role and use of technology, the ethics of technology, and ways to mitigate its downsides are ongoing.

Etymology

Technology is a term dating back to the early 17th century that meant ‘systematic treatment’ (from Greek Τεχνολογία, from the Greek: τέχνη, romanized: tékhnē, lit. ‘craft, art’ and -λογία (-logíā), ‘study, knowledge’).^[4][5] It is predated in use by the Ancient Greek word τέχνη (tékhnē), used to mean ‘knowledge of how to make things’, which encompassed activities like architecture.^[6]

Starting in the 19th century, continental Europeans started using the terms Technik (German) or technique (French) to refer to a ‘way of doing’, which included all technical arts, such as dancing, navigation, or printing, whether or not they required tools or instruments.^[7] At the time, Technologie (German and French) referred either to the academic discipline studying the “methods of arts and crafts”, or to the political discipline “intended to legislate on the functions of the arts and crafts.”^[8] The distinction between Technik and Technologie is absent in English, and so both were translated as technology. The term was previously uncommon in English and mostly referred to the academic discipline, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.^[9]

In the 20th century, as a result of scientific progress and the Second Industrial Revolution, technology stopped being considered a distinct academic discipline and took on the meaning: the systemic use of knowledge to practical ends.^[10]

History

Main articles: History of technology and Timeline of historic inventions

Prehistoric

Main article: Prehistoric technology

Tools were initially developed by hominids through observation and trial and error.^[11] Around 2 Mya (million years ago), they learned to make the first stone tools by hammering flakes off a pebble, forming a sharp hand axe.^[12] This practice was refined 75 kya (thousand years ago) into pressure flaking, enabling much finer work.^[13]

The discovery of fire was described by Charles Darwin as “possibly the greatest ever made by man”.^[14] Archaeological, dietary, and social evidence point to “continuous [human] fire-use” at least 1.5 Mya.^[15] Fire, fueled with wood and charcoal, allowed early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the number of foods that could be eaten.^[16] The cooking hypothesis proposes that the ability to cook promoted an increase in hominid brain size, though some researchers find the evidence inconclusive.^[17] Archaeological evidence of hearths was dated to 790 kya; researchers believe this is likely to have intensified human socialization and may have contributed to the emergence of language.^[18][19]

Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era include clothing and shelter.^[20] No consensus exists on the approximate time of adoption of either technology, but archaeologists have found archaeological evidence of clothing 90-120 kya^[21] and shelter 450 kya.^[20] As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380 kya, humans were constructing temporary wood huts.^[22][23] Clothing, adapted from the fur and hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into colder regions; humans began to migrate out of Africa around 200 kya, initially moving to Eurasia.^[24][25][26]

Neolithic

Main article: Neolithic Revolution

The Neolithic Revolution (or First Agricultural Revolution) brought about an acceleration of technological innovation, and a consequent increase in social complexity.^[27] The invention of the polished stone axe was a major advance that allowed large-scale forest clearance and farming.^[28] This use of polished stone axes increased greatly in the Neolithic but was originally used in the preceding Mesolithic in some areas such as Ireland.^[29] Agriculture fed larger populations, and the transition to sedentism allowed for the simultaneous raising of more children, as infants no longer needed to be carried around by nomads. Additionally, children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could participate in hunter-gatherer activities.^[30][31]

With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase in labor specialization.^[32] What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as Uruk, and the first civilizations, such as Sumer, is not specifically known; however, the emergence of increasingly hierarchical social structures and specialized labor, of trade and war among adjacent cultures, and the need for collective action to overcome environmental challenges such as irrigation, are all thought to have played a role.^[33]

The invention of writing led to the spread of cultural knowledge and became the basis for history, libraries, schools, and scientific research.^[34]

Continuing improvements led to the furnace and bellows and provided, for the first time, the ability to smelt and forge gold, copper, silver, and lead – native metals found in relatively pure form in nature.^[35] The advantages of copper tools over stone, bone and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning of Neolithic times (about 10 kya).^[36] Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires. Eventually, the working of metals led to the discovery of alloys such as bronze and brass (about 4,000 BCE). The first use of iron alloys such as steel dates to around 1,800 BCE.^[37][38]

Ancient

Main article: Ancient technology

Ancient technology

Egyptian technologyIndian technologyChinese technologyGreek technologyRoman technologyIranian technology

After harnessing fire, humans discovered other forms of energy. The earliest known use of wind power is the sailing ship; the earliest record of a ship under sail is that of a Nile boat dating to around 7,000 BCE.^[39] From prehistoric times, Egyptians likely used the power of the annual flooding of the Nile to irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of it through purposely built irrigation channels and “catch” basins.^[40] The ancient Sumerians in Mesopotamia used a complex system of canals and levees to divert water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for irrigation.^[41]

Archaeologists estimate that the wheel was invented independently and concurrently in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture), and Central Europe.^[42] Time estimates range from 5,500 to 3,000 BCE with most experts putting it closer to 4,000 BCE.^[43] The oldest artifacts with drawings depicting wheeled carts date from about 3,500 BCE.^[44] More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in the world as of 2024 was found in the Ljubljana Marsh of Slovenia; Austrian experts have established that the wheel is between 5,100 and 5,350 years old.^[45]

The invention of the wheel revolutionized trade and war. It did not take long to discover that wheeled wagons could be used to carry heavy loads. The ancient Sumerians used a potter’s wheel and may have invented it.^[46] A stone pottery wheel found in the city-state of Ur dates to around 3,429 BCE,^[47] and even older fragments of wheel-thrown pottery have been found in the same area.^[47] Fast (rotary) potters’ wheels enabled early mass production of pottery, but it was the use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through water wheels, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources. The first two-wheeled carts were derived from travois^[48] and were first used in Mesopotamia and Iran in around 3,000 BCE.^[48]

The oldest known constructed roadways are the stone-paved streets of the city-state of Ur, dating to c. 4,000 BCE,^[49] and timber roads leading through the swamps of Glastonbury, England, dating to around the same period.^[49] The first long-distance road, which came into use around 3,500 BCE,^[49] spanned 2,400 km from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea,^[49] but was not paved and was only partially maintained.^[49] In around 2,000 BCE, the Minoans on the Greek island of Crete built a 50 km road leading from the palace of Gortyn on the south side of the island, through the mountains, to the palace of Knossos on the north side of the island.^[49] Unlike the earlier road, the Minoan road was completely paved.^[49]

Ancient Minoan private homes had running water.^[51] A bathtub virtually identical to modern ones was unearthed at the Palace of Knossos.^[51][52] Several Minoan private homes also had toilets, which could be flushed by pouring water down the drain.^[51] The ancient Romans had many public flush toilets,^[52] which emptied into an extensive sewage system.^[52] The primary sewer in Rome was the Cloaca Maxima;^[52] construction began on it in the sixth century BCE and it is still in use today.^[52]

The ancient Romans also had a complex system of aqueducts,^[50] which were used to transport water across long distances.^[50] The first Roman aqueduct was built in 312 BCE.^[50] The eleventh and final ancient Roman aqueduct was built in 226 CE.^[50] Put together, the Roman aqueducts extended over 450 km,^[50] but less than 70 km of this was above ground and supported by arches.^[50]

Pre-modern

Main articles: Medieval technology and Renaissance technology

Innovations continued through the Middle Ages with the introduction of silk production (in Asia and later Europe), the horse collar, and horseshoes. Simple machines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley) were combined into more complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills, and clocks.^[53] A system of universities developed and spread scientific ideas and practices, including Oxford and Cambridge.^[54]

The Renaissance era produced many innovations, including the introduction of the movable type printing press to Europe, which facilitated the communication of knowledge. Technology became increasingly influenced by science, beginning a cycle of mutual advancement.^[55]

Modern

Main articles: Industrial Revolution, Second Industrial Revolution, and Information Age

Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the discovery of steam power set off the Industrial Revolution, which saw wide-ranging technological discoveries, particularly in the areas of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, metallurgy, and transport, and the widespread application of the factory system.^[56] This was followed a century later by the Second Industrial Revolution which led to rapid scientific discovery, standardization, and mass production. New technologies were developed, including sewage systems, electricity, light bulbs, electric motors, railroads, automobiles, and airplanes. These technological advances led to significant developments in medicine, chemistry, physics, and engineering.^[57] They were accompanied by consequential social change, with the introduction of skyscrapers accompanied by rapid urbanization.^[58] Communication improved with the invention of the telegraph, the telephone, the radio, and television.^[59]

The 20th century brought a host of innovations. In physics, the discovery of nuclear fission in the Atomic Age led to both nuclear weapons and nuclear power. Analog computers were invented and asserted dominance in processing complex data. While the invention of vacuum tubes allowed for digital computing with computers like the ENIAC, their sheer size precluded widespread use until innovations in quantum physics allowed for the invention of the transistor in 1947, which significantly compacted computers and led the digital transition. Information technology, particularly optical fiber and optical amplifiers, allowed for simple and fast long-distance communication, which ushered in the Information Age and the birth of the Internet. The Space Age began with the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, and later the launch of crewed missions to the moon in the 1960s. Organized efforts to search for extraterrestrial intelligence have used radio telescopes to detect signs of technology use, or technosignatures, given off by alien civilizations. In medicine, new technologies were developed for diagnosis (CT, PET, and MRI scanning), treatment (like the dialysis machine, defibrillator, pacemaker, and a wide array of new pharmaceutical drugs), and research (like interferon cloning and DNA microarrays).^[60]

Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are needed to make and maintain more modern technologies, and entire industries have arisen to develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools. Modern technology increasingly relies on training and education – their designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require sophisticated general and specific training.^[61] Moreover, these technologies have become so complex that entire fields have developed to support them, including engineering, medicine, and computer science; and other fields have become more complex, such as construction, transportation, and architecture.

Impact

Main article: Technology and society

Technological change is the largest cause of long-term economic growth.^[62][63] Throughout human history, energy production was the main constraint on economic development, and new technologies allowed humans to significantly increase the amount of available energy. First came fire, which made edible a wider variety of foods, and made it less physically demanding to digest them. Fire also enabled smelting, and the use of tin, copper, and iron tools, used for hunting or tradesmanship. Then came the agricultural revolution: humans no longer needed to hunt or gather to survive, and began to settle in towns and cities, forming more complex societies, with militaries and more organized forms of religion.^[64]

Technologies have contributed to human welfare through increased prosperity, improved comfort and quality of life, and medical progress, but they can also disrupt existing social hierarchies, cause pollution, and harm individuals or groups.

Recent years have brought about a rise in social media’s cultural prominence, with potential repercussions on democracy, and economic and social life. Early on, the internet was seen as a “liberation technology” that would democratize knowledge, improve access to education, and promote democracy. Modern research has turned to investigate the internet’s downsides, including disinformation, polarization, hate speech, and propaganda.^[65]

Since the 1970s, technology’s impact on the environment has been criticized, leading to a surge in investment in solar, wind, and other forms of clean energy.

Social

Jobs

Since the invention of the wheel, technologies have helped increase humans’ economic output. Past automation has both substituted and complemented labor; machines replaced humans at some lower-paying jobs (for example in agriculture), but this was compensated by the creation of new, higher-paying jobs.^[66] Studies have found that computers did not create significant net technological unemployment.^[67] Due to artificial intelligence being far more capable than computers, and still being in its infancy, it is not known whether it will follow the same trend; the question has been debated at length among economists and policymakers. A 2017 survey found no clear consensus among economists on whether AI would increase long-term unemployment.^[68] According to the World Economic Forum‘s “The Future of Jobs Report 2020”, AI is predicted to replace 85 million jobs worldwide, and create 97 million new jobs by 2025.^[69][70] From 1990 to 2007, a study in the U.S. by MIT economist Daron Acemoglu showed that an addition of one robot for every 1,000 workers decreased the employment-to-population ratio by 0.2%, or about 3.3 workers, and lowered wages by 0.42%.^[71][72] Concerns about technology replacing human labor however are long-lasting. As US president Lyndon Johnson said in 1964, “Technology is creating both new opportunities and new obligations for us, opportunity for greater productivity and progress; obligation to be sure that no workingman, no family must pay an unjust price for progress.” upon signing the National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress bill.^{[73][74][75][76][77]}

Security

With the growing reliance of technology, there have been security and privacy concerns along with it. Billions of people use different online payment methods, such as WeChat Pay, PayPal, Alipay, and much more to help transfer money. Although security measures are placed, some criminals are able to bypass them.^[78] In March 2022, North Korea used Blender.io, a mixer which helped them to hide their cryptocurrency exchanges, to launder over $20.5 million in cryptocurrency, from Axie Infinity, and steal over $600 million worth of cryptocurrency from the game’s owner. Because of this, the U.S. Treasury Department sanctioned Blender.io, which marked the first time it has taken action against a mixer, to try to crack down on North Korean hackers.^[79][80] The privacy of cryptocurrency has been debated. Although many customers like the privacy of cryptocurrency, many also argue that it needs more transparency and stability.^[78]

Environmental

Technology can have both positive and negative effects on the environment. Environmental technology, describes an array of technologies which seek to reverse, mitigate or halt environmental damage to the environment. This can include measures to halt pollution through environmental regulations, capture and storage of pollution, or using pollutant byproducts in other industries.^[81] Other examples of environmental technology include deforestation and the reversing of deforestation.^[82] Emerging technologies in the fields of climate engineering may be able to halt or reverse global warming and its environmental impacts,^[83] although this remains highly controversial.^[84] As technology has advanced, so too has the negative environmental impact, with increased release of greenhouse gases, including methane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere, causing the greenhouse effect. This continues to gradually heat the earth, causing global warming and climate change. Measures of technological innovation correlates with a rise in greenhouse gas emissions.^[85]

Pollution

Pollution, the presence of contaminants in an environment that causes adverse effects, could have been present as early as the Inca Empire. They used a lead sulfide flux in the smelting of ores, along with the use of a wind-drafted clay kiln, which released lead into the atmosphere and the sediment of rivers.^[86]

Philosophy

Main article: Philosophy of technology

Philosophy of technology is a branch of philosophy that studies the “practice of designing and creating artifacts”, and the “nature of the things so created.”^[87] It emerged as a discipline over the past two centuries, and has grown “considerably” since the 1970s.^[88] The humanities philosophy of technology is concerned with the “meaning of technology for, and its impact on, society and culture”.^[87]

Initially, technology was seen as an extension of the human organism that replicated or amplified bodily and mental faculties.^[89] Marx framed it as a tool used by capitalists to oppress the proletariat, but believed that technology would be a fundamentally liberating force once it was “freed from societal deformations”. Second-wave philosophers like Ortega later shifted their focus from economics and politics to “daily life and living in a techno-material culture”, arguing that technology could oppress “even the members of the bourgeoisie who were its ostensible masters and possessors.” Third-stage philosophers like Don Ihde and Albert Borgmann represent a turn toward de-generalization and empiricism, and considered how humans can learn to live with technology.^{[88][page needed]}

Early scholarship on technology was split between two arguments: technological determinism, and social construction. Technological determinism is the idea that technologies cause unavoidable social changes.^[90]: 95 It usually encompasses a related argument, technological autonomy, which asserts that technological progress follows a natural progression and cannot be prevented.^[91] Social constructivists^[who?] argue that technologies follow no natural progression, and are shaped by cultural values, laws, politics, and economic incentives. Modern scholarship has shifted towards an analysis of sociotechnical systems, “assemblages of things, people, practices, and meanings”, looking at the value judgments that shape technology.^{[90][page needed]}

Cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and from what he called “technopolies”, societies that are dominated by an ideology of technological and scientific progress to the detriment of other cultural practices, values, and world views.^[92] Herbert Marcuse and John Zerzan suggest that technological society will inevitably deprive us of our freedom and psychological health.^[93]

Ethics

Main article: Ethics of technology

The ethics of technology is an interdisciplinary subfield of ethics that analyzes technology’s ethical implications and explores ways to mitigate potential negative impacts of new technologies. There is a broad range of ethical issues revolving around technology, from specific areas of focus affecting professionals working with technology to broader social, ethical, and legal issues concerning the role of technology in society and everyday life.^[94]

Prominent debates have surrounded genetically modified organisms, the use of robotic soldiers, algorithmic bias, and the issue of aligning AI behavior with human values.^[95]

Technology ethics encompasses several key fields: Bioethics looks at ethical issues surrounding biotechnologies and modern medicine, including cloning, human genetic engineering, and stem cell research. Computer ethics focuses on issues related to computing. Cyberethics explores internet-related issues like intellectual property rights, privacy, and censorship. Nanoethics examines issues surrounding the alteration of matter at the atomic and molecular level in various disciplines including computer science, engineering, and biology. And engineering ethics deals with the professional standards of engineers, including software engineers and their moral responsibilities to the public.^[96]

A wide branch of technology ethics is concerned with the ethics of artificial intelligence: it includes robot ethics, which deals with ethical issues involved in the design, construction, use, and treatment of robots,^[97] as well as machine ethics, which is concerned with ensuring the ethical behavior of artificially intelligent agents.^[98] Within the field of AI ethics, significant yet-unsolved research problems include AI alignment (ensuring that AI behaviors are aligned with their creators’ intended goals and interests) and the reduction of algorithmic bias. Some researchers have warned against the hypothetical risk of an AI takeover, and have advocated for the use of AI capability control in addition to AI alignment methods.

Other fields of ethics have had to contend with technology-related issues, including military ethics, media ethics, and educational ethics.

Futures studies

Main article: Futures studies

Futures studies is the study of social and technological progress. It aims to explore the range of plausible futures and incorporate human values in the development of new technologies.^[99]: 54 More generally, futures researchers are interested in improving “the freedom and welfare of humankind”.^[99]: 73 It relies on a thorough quantitative and qualitative analysis of past and present technological trends, and attempts to rigorously extrapolate them into the future.^[99] Science fiction is often used as a source of ideas.^[99]: 173 Futures research methodologies include survey research, modeling, statistical analysis, and computer simulations.^[99]: 187

Existential risk

Main article: Global catastrophic risk

Existential risk researchers analyze risks that could lead to human extinction or civilizational collapse, and look for ways to build resilience against them.^[100][101] Relevant research centers include the Cambridge Center for the Study of Existential Risk, and the Stanford Existential Risk Initiative.^[102] Future technologies may contribute to the risks of artificial general intelligence, biological warfare, nuclear warfare, nanotechnology, anthropogenic climate change, global warming, or stable global totalitarianism, though technologies may also help us mitigate asteroid impacts and gamma-ray bursts.^[103] In 2019 philosopher Nick Bostrom introduced the notion of a vulnerable world, “one in which there is some level of technological development at which civilization almost certainly gets devastated by default”, citing the risks of a pandemic caused by bioterrorists, or an arms race triggered by the development of novel armaments and the loss of mutual assured destruction.^[104] He invites policymakers to question the assumptions that technological progress is always beneficial, that scientific openness is always preferable, or that they can afford to wait until a dangerous technology has been invented before they prepare mitigations.^[104]

Emerging technologies

Main article: Emerging technologies

Emerging technologies are novel technologies whose development or practical applications are still largely unrealized. They include nanotechnology, biotechnology, robotics, 3D printing, and blockchains.

In 2005, futurist Ray Kurzweil claimed the next technological revolution would rest upon advances in genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics, with robotics being the most impactful of the three technologies.^[105] Genetic engineering will allow far greater control over human biological nature through a process called directed evolution. Some thinkers believe that this may shatter our sense of self, and have urged for renewed public debate exploring the issue more thoroughly;^[106] others fear that directed evolution could lead to eugenics or extreme social inequality. Nanotechnology will grant us the ability to manipulate matter “at the molecular and atomic scale”,^[107] which could allow us to reshape ourselves and our environment in fundamental ways.^[108] Nanobots could be used within the human body to destroy cancer cells or form new body parts, blurring the line between biology and technology.^[109] Autonomous robots have undergone rapid progress, and are expected to replace humans at many dangerous tasks, including search and rescue, bomb disposal, firefighting, and war.^[110]

Estimates on the advent of artificial general intelligence vary, but half of machine learning experts surveyed in 2018 believe that AI will “accomplish every task better and more cheaply” than humans by 2063, and automate all human jobs by 2140.^[111] This expected technological unemployment has led to calls for increased emphasis on computer science education and debates about universal basic income. Political science experts predict that this could lead to a rise in extremism, while others see it as an opportunity to usher in a post-scarcity economy.

Movements

Appropriate technology

Main article: Appropriate technology

Some segments of the 1960s hippie counterculture grew to dislike urban living and developed a preference for locally autonomous, sustainable, and decentralized technology, termed appropriate technology. This later influenced hacker culture and technopaganism.

Technological utopianism

Main article: Technological utopianism

Technological utopianism refers to the belief that technological development is a moral good, which can and should bring about a utopia, that is, a society in which laws, governments, and social conditions serve the needs of all its citizens.^[112] Examples of techno-utopian goals include post-scarcity economics, life extension, mind uploading, cryonics, and the creation of artificial superintelligence. Major techno-utopian movements include transhumanism and singularitarianism.

The transhumanism movement is founded upon the “continued evolution of human life beyond its current human form” through science and technology, informed by “life-promoting principles and values.”^[113] The movement gained wider popularity in the early 21st century.^[114]

Singularitarians believe that machine superintelligence will “accelerate technological progress” by orders of magnitude and “create even more intelligent entities ever faster”, which may lead to a pace of societal and technological change that is “incomprehensible” to us. This event horizon is known as the technological singularity.^[115]

Major figures of techno-utopianism include Ray Kurzweil and Nick Bostrom. Techno-utopianism has attracted both praise and criticism from progressive, religious, and conservative thinkers.^[116]

Anti-technology backlash

See also: Luddite, Neo-Luddism, and Bioconservatism

Technology’s central role in our lives has drawn concerns and backlash. The backlash against technology is not a uniform movement and encompasses many heterogeneous ideologies.^[117]

The earliest known revolt against technology was Luddism, a pushback against early automation in textile production. Automation had resulted in a need for fewer workers, a process known as technological unemployment.

Between the 1970s and 1990s, American terrorist Ted Kaczynski carried out a series of bombings across America and published the Unabomber Manifesto denouncing technology’s negative impacts on nature and human freedom. The essay resonated with a large part of the American public.^[118] It was partly inspired by Jacques Ellul’s The Technological Society.^[119]

Some subcultures, like the off-the-grid movement, advocate a withdrawal from technology and a return to nature. The ecovillage movement seeks to reestablish harmony between technology and nature.^[120]

Relation to science and engineering

See also: Science and Engineering

Engineering is the process by which technology is developed. It often requires problem-solving under strict constraints.^[121] Technological development is “action-oriented”, while scientific knowledge is fundamentally explanatory.^[122] Polish philosopher Henryk Skolimowski framed it like so: “science concerns itself with what is, technology with what is to be.”^[123]: 375

The direction of causality between scientific discovery and technological innovation has been debated by scientists, philosophers and policymakers.^[124] Because innovation is often undertaken at the edge of scientific knowledge, most technologies are not derived from scientific knowledge, but instead from engineering, tinkering and chance.^{[125]: 217–240} For example, in the 1940s and 1950s, when knowledge of turbulent combustion or fluid dynamics was still crude, jet engines were invented through “running the device to destruction, analyzing what broke […] and repeating the process”.^[121] Scientific explanations often follow technological developments rather than preceding them.^{[125]: 217–240} Many discoveries also arose from pure chance, like the discovery of penicillin as a result of accidental lab contamination.^[126] Since the 1960s, the assumption that government funding of basic research would lead to the discovery of marketable technologies has lost credibility.^[127][128] Probabilist Nassim Taleb argues that national research programs that implement the notions of serendipity and convexity through frequent trial and error are more likely to lead to useful innovations than research that aims to reach specific outcomes.^[125][129]

Despite this, modern technology is increasingly reliant on deep, domain-specific scientific knowledge. In 1975, there was an average of one citation of scientific literature in every three patents granted in the U.S.; by 1989, this increased to an average of one citation per patent. The average was skewed upwards by patents related to the pharmaceutical industry, chemistry, and electronics.^[130] A 2021 analysis shows that patents that are based on scientific discoveries are on average 26% more valuable than equivalent non-science-based patents.^[131]

Other animal species

See also: Tool use by animals, Structures built by animals, and Ecosystem engineer

The use of basic technology is also a feature of non-human animal species. Tool use was once considered a defining characteristic of the genus Homo.^[132] This view was supplanted after discovering evidence of tool use among chimpanzees and other primates,^[133] dolphins,^[134] and crows.^[135][136] For example, researchers have observed wild chimpanzees using basic foraging tools, pestles, levers, using leaves as sponges, and tree bark or vines as probes to fish termites.^[137] West African chimpanzees use stone hammers and anvils for cracking nuts,^[138] as do capuchin monkeys of Boa Vista, Brazil.^[139] Tool use is not the only form of animal technology use; for example, beaver dams, built with wooden sticks or large stones, are a technology with “dramatic” impacts on river habitats and ecosystems.^[140]